V model (Forsberg & Mooz, 1991)

  • each phase has output and a review process
    • errors are found at early stage
    • decreases the risk of failure
  • testing is done in a hierarchical perspective
  • review is a testing process usually without executing the code

test pyramid

the turtle and rabbit figures by Delapouite under CC BY 3.0 via game-icons.net

what is a unit test?

  • what is a unit?
    • smallest testable part of a program
    • usually a method
  • a unit test is another piece of code, that tests the given unit
def fizzbuzz(i: int) -> str:
    """
    >>> fizzbuzz(3)
    'Fizz'
    >>> fizzbuzz(5)
    'Buzz'
    >>> fizzbuzz(15)
    'FizzBuzz'
    >>> fizzbuzz(17)
    '17'
    """
    result = ""
    if i % 15 == 0:
        result += "FizzBuzz"
    elif i % 3 == 0:
        result += "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        result += "Buzz"
    else:
        result = str(i)
    return result

doctest in Python

what really is a unit?

  • defined as a single behaviour exhibited by the system under test
    • usually corresponding to a requirement
  • it may imply that it is a function or a module / method or a class
    • depending on the paradigm
  • functions / methods, modules or classes don’t always correspond to units
  • “only entry points to externally-visible system behaviours define units”
    • by Kent Beck (Beck, 2002)

source: (Wikipedia contributors, 2024e)

unit vs integration testing

The terms ‘unit test’ and ‘integration test’ have always been rather murky, even by the slippery standards of most software terminology.

– Martin Fowler (Fowler, 2021)

unit test
tests a single behaviour

integration test
test a set of units, working together

in most of my examples a unit will be represented by a method

unit test example

code/fizzbuzz.py

def fizzbuzz(i: int) -> str:
    result = ""
    if i % 15 == 0:
        result += "FizzBuzz"
    elif i % 3 == 0:
        result += "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        result += "Buzz"
    else:
        result = str(i)
    return result

code/test_fizzbuzz.py

from fizzbuzz import fizzbuzz


def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(5) == "Buzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(10) == "Buzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(12) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(15) == "FizzBuzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(17) == "17"

arrange, act, assert pattern

parts of a unit test

arrange
set up the testing environment (e.g., create objects)

act
call the tested unit

assert
compare the result of the ‘act’ step to the expected value

def test_fizzbuzz():
    # arrange
    test_input = 3
    # act
    result = fizzbuzz(test_input)
    # assert
    assert result == "Fizz"

arrange, act, assert(, annihilate) pattern

parts of a unit test

arrange
set up the testing environment

(e.g., create objects)

act
call the tested unit

assert
compare the result of the ‘act’ step to the expected value

annihilate
free resources

automatic in modern languages

how to unit test this funciton?

def query_progress(user_id: int) -> float:
    # establish database connection
    con = sqlite3.connect("data.db")
    # build query
    progress_query = f"""
    SELECT
        lesson / 50.0 AS progress
    FROM activity
    WHERE
        user_id = {user_id} AND
        result = 'success'
    ORDER BY
        lesson DESC
    LIMIT 1
    ;
    """
    # execute query
    res = con.execute(progress_query)
    progress = res.fetchone()[0]
    return progress
  • short answer: you can’t
  • because it is not a unit
    • it does 3 things
  • single responsibility principle makes unit testing easier
  • a ‘stable’ database would be needed for testing
    • if the DB content changed, the expected value would become obsolete

separate business logic from persistence

architectural styles provides patterns to separate the business logic from the persistence layer

unit testing usually targets the business logic

which was embedded into the query in the previous example

SELECT
    lesson / 50.0 AS progress
FROM activity
WHERE
    user_id = 42 AND
    result = 'success'
ORDER BY lesson DESC
LIMIT 1;

separated business logic

def query_last_finished_lesson(
    user_id: int
) -> float:
    # establish database connection
    con = sqlite3.connect("data.db")
    # build query
    query = f"""
    SELECT lesson
    FROM activity
    WHERE
        user_id = {user_id} AND
        result = 'success'
    ORDER BY lesson DESC
    LIMIT 1;
    """
    # execute query
    res = con.execute(query)
    return res.fetchone()[0]

def calculate_progress(
    finished: int, total: int
) -> float:
    return finished / total


def calculate_user_progress(
    user_id: int, total: int
) -> float:
    f = query_last_finished_lesson(user_id)
    return calculate_progress(f, total)
  • now, the query is only responsible for getting the last finished lesson
    • the DB connection is still in a bit out of the place, but the testability improved

separated data connection

def query_last_finished_lesson(
    con: sqlite3.Connection,
    user_id: int
) -> float:
    # build query
    query = f"""
    SELECT lesson
    FROM activity
    WHERE
        user_id = {user_id} AND
        result = 'success'
    ORDER BY lesson DESC
    LIMIT 1;
    """
    # execute query
    res = con.execute(query)
    return res.fetchone()[0]

def establish_database_connection(
    path: str = "data.db"
) -> sqlite3.Connection:
    return sqlite3.connect(path)
  • now, there is a function responsible for the DB connection
    • it is easy to use a test database from the test suite and the production database in the production code
  • the test DB can store ‘stable’ values
    • the expected values in the assert statements are safe

mocking

  • the whole unit test suite should be able to run in milliseconds
    • to give immediate feedback
  • slow elements of the software should be mocked
    • e.g., database, network connection
  • part of arrange step

test doubles – mock object types

there is no open standard for categories

  • dummy
  • stub
  • spy
  • mock
  • fake
reproduction of figure 2 from (Seemann, 2007)

these are from the book xUnit test patterns: Refactoring test code – by Gerard Meszaros (Meszaros, 2007)

test doubles – test dummy

The simplest, most primitive type of test double. Dummies contain no implementation and are mostly used when required as parameter values, but not otherwise utilized. Nulls can be considered dummies, but real dummies are derivations of interfaces or base classes without any implementation at all.

– Mark Seemann (Seemann, 2007)

require 'sinatra'

get '/user-statistics' do
  return {}.to_json
end

test doubles – test stub

provides static input

A step up from dummies, stubs are minimal implementations of interfaces or base classes. Methods returning void will typically contain no implementation at all, while methods returning values will typically return hard-coded values.

– Mark Seemann (Seemann, 2007)

require 'sinatra'

get '/user-statistics' do
  data = {}
  data['name'] = 'Marvin'
  data['id'] = 42
  data['registration'] = '2019-10-02'
  data['progress'] = 0.84
  data['activity'] = [
    [2, 0, 2, 3, 5, 3, 2],
    [5, 2, 4, 4, 0, 3, 4],
    [6, 3, 0, 6, 8, 3, 0],
    [9, 7, 4, 7, 0, 9, 9]
  ]
  return data.to_json
end

test doubles – test spy

A test spy is similar to a stub, but besides giving clients an instance on which to invoke members, a spy will also record which members were invoked so that unit tests can verify that members were invoked as expected.

– Mark Seemann (Seemann, 2007)

One form of this might be an email service that records how many messages it was sent.

– Martin Fowler (Fowler, 2006)

or keeping track of the test user (of the learning app) and give back values according to the input parameter

test doubles – test fake

A fake contains more complex implementations, typically handling interactions between different members of the type it’s inheriting. While not a complete production implementation, a fake may resemble a production implementation, albeit with some shortcuts.

– Mark Seemann (Seemann, 2007)

when you add logic for the test double, that might be tested as well

require 'sinatra'

def generate_progress
  rand.round(2)
end

def generate_activity_matrix
  result = []
  (1..4).each do |_w|
    daily = []
    (1..7).each {|_d| daily.push rand(10)}
    result.push daily
  end
  result
end

get '/user-statistics' do
  data = {}
  data['name'] = 'Marvin'
  data['id'] = 42
  data['registration'] = '2019-10-02'
  data['progress'] = generate_progress
  data['activity'] = generate_activity_matrix
  return data.to_json
end

test doubles – test mock

A mock is dynamically created by a mock library (the others are typically produced by a test developer using code). The test developer never sees the actual code implementing the interface or base class, but can configure the mock to provide return values, expect particular members to be invoked, and so on. Depending on its configuration, a mock can behave like a dummy, a stub, or a spy.

– Mark Seemann (Seemann, 2007)

reproduction of figure 2 from (Seemann, 2007)

test-driven development (TDD)

  • write test before writing the tested code
  • without the called unit the test will fail
    • the called function does not exist
  • write code, that makes the test pass
  • improve the code quality
    • e.g., make it clear and clean
    • both the test and tested code

red

  • test only one thing at a time
  • the test should be very simple
  • increase the complexity of the test cases continuously
  • mock the (external) dependencies
    • bit later

green

  • use the possible simplest code to pass the test
  • it does not matter if the solution is ‘ugly’
    • but the test must pass
  • as soon as the test passes, this step is done
    • and all of the old tests as well

refactor

Refactoring is a disciplined technique for restructuring an existing body of code, altering its internal structure without changing its external behavior.

– Martin Fowler (Fowler, n.d.)

  • on code level
    • style guide, best practices, idiomatic code
  • on architecture level
    • design patterns like SOLID, DRY, etc.
  • part of day-to-day programming
    • ‘campground rule’: leave the code better than you found it

test-driven development – fizzbuzz example

fizzbuzz.py

def fizzbuzz():
    pass

def fizzbuzz(i):
    pass

def fizzbuzz(i):
    return "Fizz"

def fizzbuzz(i):
    return "Fizz"

def fizzbuzz(i):
    if i % 3 == 0:
        return "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        return "Buzz"

def fizzbuzz(i):
    if i % 3 == 0:
        return "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        return "Buzz"

def fizzbuzz(i):
    if i % 15 == 0:
        return "FizzBuzz"
    elif i % 3 == 0:
        return "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        return "Buzz"

def fizzbuzz(i):
    if i % 15 == 0:
        return "FizzBuzz"
    elif i % 3 == 0:
        return "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        return "Buzz"

def fizzbuzz(i):
    if i % 15 == 0:
        return "FizzBuzz"
    elif i % 3 == 0:
        return "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        return "Buzz"
    else:
        return str(i)

test_fizzbuzz.py

from fizzbuzz import *

def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"

from fizzbuzz import *

def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(5) == "Buzz"

from fizzbuzz import *

def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(5) == "Buzz"

from fizzbuzz import *

def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(5) == "Buzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(15) == "FizzBuzz"

from fizzbuzz import *

def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(5) == "Buzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(15) == "FizzBuzz"

from fizzbuzz import *

def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(5) == "Buzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(15) == "FizzBuzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(17) == "17"

from fizzbuzz import *

def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(5) == "Buzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(15) == "FizzBuzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(17) == "17"

NameError: name ‘fizzbuzz’ is not defined

TypeError: fizzbuzz() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given

AssertionError: assert None == ‘Fizz’

passed

AssertionError: assert ‘Fizz’ == ‘Buzz’ (5)

passed

AssertionError: assert ‘Fizz’ == ‘FizzBuzz’ (15)

passed

AssertionError: assert None == ‘17’ (17)

passed

there is not much to improve on the code, except that according to the PEP8 Python style guide the ‘star import’ is not allowed; it should be import fizzbuzz

As the tests get more specific, the code gets more generic.

– Robert C. Martin, The Cycles of TDD (Martin, 2014)

transformation priority premise

  1. ({} -> nil) from no code at all to code that employs nil
  2. (nil -> constant)
  3. (constant -> constant+) a simple constant to a more complex constant
  4. (constant -> scalar) replacing a constant with a variable or an argument
  5. (statement -> statements) adding more unconditional statements
  6. (unconditional -> if) splitting the execution path
  7. (scalar -> array)
  8. (array -> container)
  9. (statement -> tail-recursion)
  10. (if -> while)
  11. (expression -> function) replacing an expression with a function or algorithm
  12. (variable -> assignment) replacing the value of a variable

source: Robert C. Martin, The Transformation Priority Premise (Martin, 2013)

coding kata

kata (型)
set sequence of positions and movements in martial arts

  • code/coding kata is a (relatively) simple programming task, that is meant to practised over and over again (in TDD)
    • in different languages, different praradigms, different coding styles
  • some coding kata

too strict TDD

  • TDD requires adding one test (case) at a time and then make the code pass
  • this is often unrealistic
    • e.g., on existing codebase, in research
  • strict TDD is good for learning, practising
    • coding kata
  • but tests are still important!
  • what I do is to turn experiments into tests

experiment-driven testing

task: get day from a date string like Nov 08, 13:11

  1. do experiment
>>> "Nov 08, 13:11"[3:5]
' 0'
>>> "Nov 08, 13:11"[4:6]
'08'
  1. put it to a function
def extract_day(s: str) -> int:
    return int(s[4:6])
  1. add test based on the experiment
def test_extract_day():
    actual = extract_day("Nov 08, 13:11")
    expected = 8
    assert actual == expected

behaviour-driven development (BDD)

  • BDD is an extension of TDD
  • using BDD can help you to turn an idea for a requirement into implemented, tested, production-ready code
  • BDD starts from a user story and focuses on adding the acceptance criteria
    • which can be turned into unit tests
Title (one line describing the story)

Narrative:
As a [role]
I want [feature]
So that [benefit]

Acceptance Criteria: (presented as Scenarios)

Scenario 1: Title
Given [context]
  And [some more context]...
When  [event]
Then  [outcome]
  And [another outcome]...

Scenario 2: ...

taken from (Terhorst-North, 2007) by Daniel Terhorst-North | CC-BY 4.0

  • the strict TDD does not allow more than one new test at a time

acceptance criteria

  • describes how a system should behave under certain circumstances
    • may originate from domain experts
  • the ‘rules’ are written in natural language, but in a structured form
    • easy to discuss with non-developers
  • based on the acceptance criteria multiple tests can be written
Title (one line describing the story)

Narrative:
As a [role]
I want [feature]
So that [benefit]

Acceptance Criteria: (presented as Scenarios)

Scenario 1: Title
Given [context]
  And [some more context]...
When  [event]
Then  [outcome]
  And [another outcome]...

Scenario 2: ...

taken from (Terhorst-North, 2007) by Daniel Terhorst-North | CC-BY 4.0

acceptance test-driven development

  • extends TDD and BDD
  • instead of a unit, ATDD focuses on the acceptance criteria of the whole system
  • advocates writing acceptance tests before developers begin coding

test format like BDD, example from (Wikipedia contributors, 2022):

Given Book that has not been checked out
And User who is registered on the system
When User checks out a book
Then Book is marked as checked out

readme driven development

beautifully crafted library with no documentation is damn near worthless […]

So how do we solve this problem? Write your Readme first.

– by Tom Preston-Werner (Preston-Werner, 2010)

readme ~ user manual, but brief, concise

  • before you write any code or tests or behaviors or stories or anything
  • document how a user would use the software
  • you’ll know what you need to implement
  • a lot simpler to have a discussion based on something written down

source: Readme Driven Development – by Tom Preston-Werner (Preston-Werner, 2010)

test coverage

  • the percentage of the code lines ‘protected’ or covered by tests

code/fizzbuzz.py

def fizzbuzz(i: int) -> str:
    result = ""
    if i % 15 == 0:
        result += "FizzBuzz"
    elif i % 3 == 0:
        result += "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        result += "Buzz"
    else:
        result = str(i)
    return result

def fizzbuzz(i: int) -> str:
    result = ""
    if i % 15 == 0:
        result += "FizzBuzz"
    elif i % 3 == 0:
        result += "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        result += "Buzz"
    else:
        result = str(i)
    return result

def fizzbuzz(i: int) -> str:
    result = ""
    if i % 15 == 0:
        result += "FizzBuzz"
    elif i % 3 == 0:
        result += "Fizz"
    elif i % 5 == 0:
        result += "Buzz"
    else:
        result = str(i)
    return result

code/test_fizzbuzz.py

from fizzbuzz import fizzbuzz


def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(15) == "FizzBuzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"

from fizzbuzz import fizzbuzz


def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(15) == "FizzBuzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(5) == "Buzz"

from fizzbuzz import fizzbuzz


def test_fizzbuzz():
    assert fizzbuzz(15) == "FizzBuzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(3) == "Fizz"
    assert fizzbuzz(5) == "Buzz"
    assert fizzbuzz(17) == "17"

test coverage: 70%

test coverage: 90%

test coverage: 100%

four control flow branch, all of them needs to be tested

how to measure code quality?

it is hard to objectively measure the quality of code

  • number of source lines of code (SLOC)
  • style guide compliance – is the code clean?
  • Halstead metrics
  • cyclomatic complexity – is the code simple?
  • maintainability index
  • test coverage – is the code tested?

when unit tests are not more than a measure

  • zombie scrum: doing something without heart, without its essence
  • if you write unit tests just to increase the test coverage they loose its function
    • and collect badges:
by Randall Munroe CC BY-NC 2.5 | source

what to test?

def calculate_progress(
    finished: int,
    total: int,
    as_percentage: bool,
) -> float:
    progress = finished / total

    if as_percentage:
        return progress * 100
    else:
        return progress

from progress import calculate_progress


def test_progress():
    total = 50
    for i in range(total + 1):
        expected = i / total
        actual = calculate_progress(i, total, False)
        assert actual == expected


def test_progress_percentage():
    total = 50
    for i in range(total + 1):
        expected = i / total * 100
        actual = calculate_progress(i, total, True)
        assert actual == expected

test coverage: 100%, achievement obtained, but this is completely stupid

test the edge cases!

def calculate_progress(
    finished: int,
    total: int,
    as_percentage: bool,
) -> float:
    progress = finished / total

    if as_percentage:
        return progress * 100
    else:
        return progress

this function need some value checking

what does this function do?

  • divides the number of finished lessons by the total number of lessons

  • returns progress in the closed interval of [0, 1] or [0, 100]

edge cases

  • total is 0

  • total is less than 0

  • finished is less than 0

  • finished is greater than total

test coverage only measures that every control flow branch is tested

the point of testing is testing for the edge cases

how to find edge cases

  • interval boundaries
  • requirements
  • defining of done
  • acceptance criteria of BDD-style scenarios
    • extended user user stories
Story: Account Holder withdraws cash

As an Account Holder
I want to withdraw cash from an ATM
So that I can get money when the bank is closed

story example taken from What’s in a Story? (Terhorst-North, 2007) by Daniel Terhorst-North | CC-BY 4.0

an acceptance criterion:

Scenario 1: Account has sufficient funds
Given the account balance is $100
 And the card is valid
 And the machine contains enough money
When the Account Holder requests $20
Then the ATM should dispense $20
 And the account balance should be $80
 And the card should be returned

a test function:

def test_withdraw():
    account = Account(balance=100)
    withdraw_money(account, 20)
    assert account.balance == 80
    account = Account(balance=10)
    withdraw_money(account, 20)
    assert account.balance == 10

legacy code

  • old, inherited code
  • difficult-to-change code that we don’t understand
  • rotten
    • degraded, deteriorated, or lost its use or performance over time (Wikipedia contributors, 2024b)
  • spaghetti code
    • “has a complex and tangled control structure, resulting in a program flow that is like a bowl of spaghetti, twisted and tangled” (Horstmann, 2007) via (Wikipedia contributors, 2024c)

technical debt

implied cost of future reworking because a solution prioritized short-term solution over long-term design (Beal, 2011) (Wikipedia contributors, 2024d)

some reasons:

  • ignoring style guides, coding standards

  • lack of test suite

  • tight coupling

  • temporary quick fixes

  • lack of documentation

  • laziness

what is legacy code?

Code without tests is bad code. It doesn’t matter how well written it is; it doesn’t matter how pretty or object-oriented or well-encapsulated it is. With tests, we can change the behavior of our code quickly and verifiably. Without them, we really don’t know if our code is getting better or worse.

– Michael Feathers, Working Effectively with Legacy Code: Preface (Feathers, 2004)

  • there is a change request, which results on code change
  • the test suite is like a safety net that can prevent that a code change breaks an existing function
tests mark the goal
without tests

the footprint, the compass and the flag figures by Lorc under CC BY 3.0 via game-icons.net

the legacy code dilemma

When we change code, we should have tests in place. To put tests in place, we often have to change code.

– Michael Feathers, Working Effectively with Legacy Code (Feathers, 2004)

(Part I / Chapter 2)

the legacy code change algorithm

  1. identify change points
  2. find test points
  3. break dependencies
  4. write tests
  5. make changes and refactor

when?

  • not for the sake of refactoring

  • along with other changes

  • leave the code cleaner than you found it

how?

  • in small, safe steps

  • understand the code you change

  • use your IDE

  • sensing, separation, mocking

source: Working Effectively with Legacy Code by Michael Feathers (Feathers, 2004)

sensing

We break dependencies to sense when we can’t access values our code computes.

– Michael Feathers, Working Effectively with Legacy Code (Feathers, 2004)

e.g., misspelled function name

function call tree
broken dependency

separation

We break dependencies to separate when we can’t even get a piece of code into a test harness to run.

– Michael Feathers, Working Effectively with Legacy Code (Feathers, 2004)

seams

A seam is a place where you can alter behavior in your program without editing in that place.

– Michael Feathers, Working Effectively with Legacy Code: Part I / chp. 4 (Feathers, 2004)

A seam is a place in the code that you can insert a modification in behavior. […] One way to take advantage of a seam is to insert some sort of fake.

– tallseth via Stackoverflow | CC BY-SA 3.0

  • using inheritance
    • subclass can do the same as parent class
    • but can be extended with sensing code
  • preprocessing seam
  • link seam
    • using build script, e.g., “same” class in different directory
branching control flow injecting a fake

changing the software

add feature fix a bug refactor optimize
structure changes changes changes
new funcionality changes
functionality changes
resource usage changes

Michael Feathers, Working Effectively with Legacy Code: part 1 pp 6 (Feathers, 2004)

testing approaches

black box

  • examining / testing the functionality without knowing the inner structure
  • works at all levels: unit, integration, system, acceptance
  • also for debugging a legacy code

white box

  • testing the internal structure as opposed to its functionality
  • often associated to unit testing, but also works on higher levels (i.e., integration, system)

smoke testing

  • preliminary testing
  • smoke tests are a subset of test cases that cover the most important functionality of a component or system
  • set of tests run on each new build to verify that it is testable before sent to the test team

source: Smoke testing (software), Wikipedia (Wikipedia contributors, 2024a)

“The phrase smoke test comes from electronic hardware testing. You plug in a new board and turn on the power. If you see smoke coming from the board, turn off the power. You don’t have to do any more testing. (Bach et al., 2002)”

rubber duck debugging

  • a method of debugging code by articulating a problem in natural language
  • originates from a story in the book The Pragmatic Programmer (Hunt & Thomas, 2019)
  • in which a programmer explains the code, line by line, to a rubber duck
  • rationale: teaching / explaining something can provide a deeper understanding
  • also for reviewing

references

Bach, J., Pettichord, B., & Kaner, C. (2002). Lessons learned in software testing: A context-driven approach. John Wiley & Sons.

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